Inferno: Canto 4 -- Circle 1
Pilgrims,
We're at Virgil's home in hell, the circle in which reside the virtuous pagans, whom, Virgil declares, "were sinless. And still their merits fail,/ for they lacked Baptism's grace, which is the door/ of the true faith you were born to. Their birth fell/ before the age of the Christian mysteries,/ and so they did not worship God's Trinity/ in fullest duty. I am one of these" (34-9). Because the population of this level of hell is "sinless," meaning not guilty of having committed sins that would have caused them to be punished further down in hell with other pagans (like Odysseus in the 8th circle) they suffer nothing except a lack of hope. Had they been born under the light of Christ, they would have likely made it to heaven through purgatory long before, but it is not only their having been born under the light of Christ that could have saved them. Virgil, who died in 19 B.C. adds that a Great One descended shortly after his arrival (Christ's name cannot be uttered in hell even though, oddly, "christian" can be) and collected all the souls he sought fit to take with him into heaven -- these included Adam, Abel, Noah, Moses, and others of the Hebrew tradition. To be one of God's chosen people wasn't extended to the rest of the world until after the New Covenant brought about by the Resurrection. As we progress further, we'll find that while it took being one of the elect to get into the Christian heaven, it took relatively little to get flung quite deeply into the Christian hell. In very subtle ways like this, Dante Catholicizes antiquity, for God is God always; even though God did not choose the pagans as his own people, this did not exclude their being his creation and subject to his eschatological system.
It is in this canto that Dante makes it known what he thinks of himself as a poet, including himself in the company of the immortal poets and swelling with pride that they would consider him one of their number. (He'll later likely be serving penance for that on the cornice of pride in Purgatory.) He doesn't name-drop gratuitously, though. Each of the five poets he names (including Virgil, Lucan, Ovid, Horace, and Homer) provides him with material for the later cantos. This introduction to them, then, is a kind of tribute to their being an inspiration for his work as much as it is a kind of challenge that he can surpass them all (which he'll boast about doing deeper in hell in statements like "Now let Lucan be still with his history/ of poor Sabellus and Nassidius,/ and wait to hear what next appeared to me./ Of Cadmus and Arethusa be Ovid silent./ I have no need to envy him those verses/ where he makes one a fountain, and one a serpent:/ for he never transformed two beings face to face/ in such a way that both their natures yielded/ their elements each to each, as in this case" (Inferno, Canto 25, 91-9)). To Virgil, he's indebted to the Aeneid. To Homer, the Iliad. To Horace, The Art of Poetry and the Epistles and Satires. To Ovid, the Metamorphoses. To Lucan, the Pharsalia. In the Citadel, he finds a person to whom he owes an even greater death for his Nicomachaen Ethics (which we'll read in Paradise) -- Aristotle, the master of those who know and the great medieval commentators on Aristotle, who happened to be Arabic, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Averroes (Ibn Roschd), for it was largely through Arabic translations that the West had come to know again of Aristotle.
With the litany of thinkers, philosophers, and statesmen (including Aeneas and Julius Caesar, of whom Lucan's Pharsalia is largely concerned), we really are in a great place filled with the highest accomplishments of the human spirit divested of grace. The dazzling light of reason can only carry us so far, though, as will be made abundantly clear when Virgil is denied access to heaven (an idea with which we've already been made acquainted in the first canto, lines 115-19). Hail the greatness of human reason and, were we not in hell, I'd recommend we send a million thanks to God for it as we'll need it as we descend further below.
S.
We're at Virgil's home in hell, the circle in which reside the virtuous pagans, whom, Virgil declares, "were sinless. And still their merits fail,/ for they lacked Baptism's grace, which is the door/ of the true faith you were born to. Their birth fell/ before the age of the Christian mysteries,/ and so they did not worship God's Trinity/ in fullest duty. I am one of these" (34-9). Because the population of this level of hell is "sinless," meaning not guilty of having committed sins that would have caused them to be punished further down in hell with other pagans (like Odysseus in the 8th circle) they suffer nothing except a lack of hope. Had they been born under the light of Christ, they would have likely made it to heaven through purgatory long before, but it is not only their having been born under the light of Christ that could have saved them. Virgil, who died in 19 B.C. adds that a Great One descended shortly after his arrival (Christ's name cannot be uttered in hell even though, oddly, "christian" can be) and collected all the souls he sought fit to take with him into heaven -- these included Adam, Abel, Noah, Moses, and others of the Hebrew tradition. To be one of God's chosen people wasn't extended to the rest of the world until after the New Covenant brought about by the Resurrection. As we progress further, we'll find that while it took being one of the elect to get into the Christian heaven, it took relatively little to get flung quite deeply into the Christian hell. In very subtle ways like this, Dante Catholicizes antiquity, for God is God always; even though God did not choose the pagans as his own people, this did not exclude their being his creation and subject to his eschatological system.
It is in this canto that Dante makes it known what he thinks of himself as a poet, including himself in the company of the immortal poets and swelling with pride that they would consider him one of their number. (He'll later likely be serving penance for that on the cornice of pride in Purgatory.) He doesn't name-drop gratuitously, though. Each of the five poets he names (including Virgil, Lucan, Ovid, Horace, and Homer) provides him with material for the later cantos. This introduction to them, then, is a kind of tribute to their being an inspiration for his work as much as it is a kind of challenge that he can surpass them all (which he'll boast about doing deeper in hell in statements like "Now let Lucan be still with his history/ of poor Sabellus and Nassidius,/ and wait to hear what next appeared to me./ Of Cadmus and Arethusa be Ovid silent./ I have no need to envy him those verses/ where he makes one a fountain, and one a serpent:/ for he never transformed two beings face to face/ in such a way that both their natures yielded/ their elements each to each, as in this case" (Inferno, Canto 25, 91-9)). To Virgil, he's indebted to the Aeneid. To Homer, the Iliad. To Horace, The Art of Poetry and the Epistles and Satires. To Ovid, the Metamorphoses. To Lucan, the Pharsalia. In the Citadel, he finds a person to whom he owes an even greater death for his Nicomachaen Ethics (which we'll read in Paradise) -- Aristotle, the master of those who know and the great medieval commentators on Aristotle, who happened to be Arabic, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Averroes (Ibn Roschd), for it was largely through Arabic translations that the West had come to know again of Aristotle.
With the litany of thinkers, philosophers, and statesmen (including Aeneas and Julius Caesar, of whom Lucan's Pharsalia is largely concerned), we really are in a great place filled with the highest accomplishments of the human spirit divested of grace. The dazzling light of reason can only carry us so far, though, as will be made abundantly clear when Virgil is denied access to heaven (an idea with which we've already been made acquainted in the first canto, lines 115-19). Hail the greatness of human reason and, were we not in hell, I'd recommend we send a million thanks to God for it as we'll need it as we descend further below.
S.
posted by Sebastian Mahfood at 9:22 PM
22 Comments:
As we descend another realm deeper into hell, Sebastian, you make the observation that Dante may need to spend some time in Purgatory for priding himself as a poet. If that were the case, I really don’t foresee Dante needing to spend much time there. On the contrary, when I was reading John Ciardi’s notes, he actually thinks Dante may be justified in priding himself here. He points out that Dante is being recognized, as the sixth member of the group, becaue of is merit. Ciardi then hypothesizes that it maybe the case where self-awareness of merit may be a higher thing than modesty, especially as Dante comes to recognize the truth. Ciardi goes on to say that maybe Dante was really being honored for continuing the Classical tradition of these poets in his time. I tend to see Ciardi’s observation highly plausible, especially since Dante, carrying this new found wisdom, will be able to carry on the fullness of truth in their honor. This is quite something to ponder. Who better, than those who have already gone before us, to share with us the fullness of truth, especially as it corresponds to their particular philosophies and lives? May Saints Augustine and Thomas Aquinas (and all the others) enlighten us! Everyone has something to contribute. It might due them eternal justice to help intercede in directing our knowledge now that they, themselves, have reached the fullness of truth.
I have theological difficulty with Dante's first circle of hell, "limbo." I suspect most modern theologians would also find it troubling. I found his vestible of hell to be especially appropriate, the "amoral" or "pro-choice" or "subjectivists." But the lack of any possiblity of salvation for the (ritually) un-baptized - "limbo" occurs after "abandon all hope" - is inconsistent with the present teaching of the church as presented in the Catholic Catechism. The term limbo is avoided in the Cathecism, and unbaptized children are commended to the mercy of God while adults are accountable according to the circumstances of their lives. Perhaps there is a lesson here that the development of doctrine of salvation has advanced favorably since the time of Dante when his limbo was presumably acceptable to his contemporaries.
I find it intersting that Dante puts those who are virtuous but don't know God in a section of Hell. Like it is there fault or something. Jesus dying on the cross is for all so you think that this place would be in maybe in the lowest part of heaven. They know God through nature and reason but they are still saved by His Son. I think they would be found in some state of purgatory also for in their hearts they knew the wrongs they did. But what is great in man is not necessarily great in God. It would ruin however Virgil as his guide since this is where he resides. Beatrice than would not take over later.
I think it is interesting that these good individuals who don't know the Trinitarian God are put in Hell and not given the opportunity for purgatory and heaven. It is not their fault for what they don't know. They have come to understanding of virtue and natural good through God whether they know it or not. Jesus death and resurrection goes back and cover all of creation. They are just held accountable to the knowledge of the soul intellect and heart. Thus they can not achieve full glory of God. They should be able to experience some of that glory. This would have great impact on the story and his realtion with Virgil.
This is a sound argument, Sean, for there is a righteous pride we ought to take in being image bearers of G-d, and just as no one should raise himself or herself above his or her level of grace or perdition, it is equally true that no one should lower himself or herself below it in undue humility, for that debases both the gift and the lamp through which it ought to shine. Ciardi writes in his notes to the tenth canto of Purgatory that pride is "the primal sin and the father of all other sins, for the proud man seeks to set himself up as God," and Dante's humbling himself to God while providing a justification for including himself among the great poets also raises them to their proper stature -- as he has Virgil say of his own reception, which precedes that of Dante's claim to be included in their number, "Since all of these have part in the high name/ the voice proclaimed, calling me Prince of Poets,/ the honor that they do me honors them" (91-3).
Allow me for a moment, though, to indulge in the foresight of the damned, which, you'll notice, will rear its head quite often in the cantos that follow. The justification I make for Dante's own pride doesn't come entirely from me but from Dante's concerns, which, in your present myopia, dazzled by the light of human reason, you cannot perceive -- for I, like Virgil, have already walked up the Mount of Purgatory, and have taken note of Ciardi's footnote in Canto XI that "Dante . . . was especially concerned about Pride as his own besetting sin" (381) and again in the footnotes to Canto XV that "Dante has already recognized that his own besetting sin is Pride, and Pride is clearly related to Wrath" (418) (take note of what Dante does to Filippo Argenti as he crosses Styx). Of course, we don't need Ciardi to tell us this much, as Dante is quite clear about it himself in Canto XIII, the cornice of the Envious, when he says to the soul of the unsapient Sapia who inquires about his unbound eyes, "My eyes . . . will yet be taken from me/ upon this ledge, but not for very long:/ little they sinned through being turned in envy./ My sould is gripped by a far greater fear/ of the torment here below [the cornice of Pride], for even now/ I seem to feel the burden those souls bear" (133-8). Pride is his grevious fault, and he well knows it even if his counting himself among the great poets of antiquity was nothing more than acknowledging his proper state.
S.
Fr. Meyer, I commend you for the theological reservations you've expressed and will defer the question to two fronts: the first is NewAdvent.org's interpretation of Limbo as it regards adults who have reached the age of accountability (this would preclude, of course, adults whose cognitive faculties are insufficient to comprehend the promise of Christ though their baptism in Christ is enough to save them) and children who died without the blessing of baptism (CCC 1261 states explicitly, in fact, what you've well described for us -- "As regards children who have died without Baptism, the Church can only entrust them to the mercy of God, as she does in her funeral rites for them. Indeed, the great mercy of God who desires that all men should be saved, and Jesus' tenderness toward children which caused him to say: 'Let the children come to me, do not hinder them,'64 allow us to hope that there is a way of salvation for children who have died without Baptism. All the more urgent is the Church's call not to prevent little children coming to Christ through the gift of holy Baptism." Virgil helps us in our interpretation here by explaining that without the grace of G-d, none can achieve heaven while Avery Cardinal Dulles points out in his video what the Catholic Encyclopedia has already stated -- we cannot know, but we can hope. We do know that baptism is important, as the Catholic Encyclopedia article above demonstrates: "it is clear form Scripture and Catholic tradition that the means of regeneration provided for this life do not remain available after death, so that those dying unregenerate are eternally excluded from the supernatural happiness of the beatific vision (John 9:4, Luke 12:40, 16:19 sqq, II Cor. 5:10; see also 'Apocatastasis'). The question therefore arises as to what, in the absence of a clear positive revelation on the subject, we ought in conformity with Catholic principles to believe regarding the eternal lot of such persons. Now it may confidently be said that, as the result of centuries of speculation on the subject, we ought to believe that these souls enjoy and will eternally enjoy a state of perfect natural happiness; and this is what Catholics usually mean when they speak of the limbus infantium, the 'children's limbo.'"
For the second front, I am videotaping two theologians today, Fr. Edward James Richard in moral theology and Fr. Lawrence C. Brennan in systematic theology and will post their thoughts in response in a special section on the IV Canto activities board.
In the meantime, may it comfort you to note what the eagle tells Dante in the 19th Canto of the Paradiso,
"For you would say, ‘A man’s born on the bank
Along the Indus, and no one is there
Who ever speaks or reads or writes of Christ.
" ‘Yet everything he wills or does is good,
So far as human reason can perceive,
75 Without a sin in living or in speaking.
" ‘Unbaptized he dies, and without faith.
Where is the justice that condemns this man?
What is his fault if he does not believe?’
"Now who are you to sit upon the seat
80 Of judgment at a thousand miles away
When your short sight sees just a foot ahead?
"Surely, were Scriptures not set over you
As guide, for him who would split hairs with me
There would be wondrous chance for questioning.
85 "O animals of earth, O gross of mind!
Good in itself, the primal Will has never
Moved from itself which is the highest Good.
"All in accord with it is just, and no
Created good draws this Will to itself
90 Unless, by raying down, the Will directs it."
Your faith in G-d, then, should be a sufficient rejoinder to your doubt, and to further nail the point, I'll quote from Alexander Pope's "Essay on Man" to the effect that you
281 Cease then, nor order imperfection name:
282Our proper bliss depends on what we blame.
283Know thy own point: This kind, this due degree
284Of blindness, weakness, Heav'n bestows on thee.
285Submit.--In this, or any other sphere,
286Secure to be as blest as thou canst bear:
287Safe in the hand of one disposing pow'r,
288Or in the natal, or the mortal hour.
289All nature is but art, unknown to thee;
290All chance, direction, which thou canst not see;
291All discord, harmony, not understood;
292All partial evil, universal good:
293And, spite of pride, in erring reason's spite,
294One truth is clear, Whatever is, is right.
More to come on this.
S.
Twice well said, Atskro. Refer to the Eagle's comment above.
S.
Is there a slight inconsistency here in Canto IV versus Canto III. Canto III proclaims the memorable inscription "Abandon all hope . . ." Yet in Canto IV, in the very next level, we are told of the Old Testament greats who were in this level but then released by Christ (on Holy Saturday?). I suppose one could argue the time sequence, the time of Dante's visit, and when the sign was posted at the entrance. Just an apparent inconsistency that I was curious about.
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An astute observation, and one of many you'll find as you progress through the Comedy. If we think of inconsistencies in the literature as puzzles rather than errors, we'll stand a chance to enrich ourselves in figuring them out. The person to whom Dante owes his philosophical training is Aristotle, and Aristotle has provided laws of propositional logic that establish the structure of syllogisms, a structure that St. Thomas Aquinas, from whom Dante also draws, used as the foundation for his Summa. In a nutshell, contradictions (or paradoxes) cannot exist, and if we think we've found one, we ought to go back and check our premises. Putting the idea of poetic license aside for a moment, let's take a look at this gate.
We know the gate, based on its inscription, was created after the eternal elements were created. It's not hell that's being described in the description, after all, but the gate itself, so we can speculate that the geography of hell was already in place but that it was likely not set apart from the rest of creation (likely not given a cartography) until after the fall of Satan (not really a fall so much as a pitched tossing if you look at the map) when the gate would have been put there to be the boundary between the presence of G-d and the absence of G-d. We can also speculate that earth, based on the fact that the poets begin their descent to the very core where Satan resides, was populated with people in order to serve as a buffer between Satan and G-d (which would be just as speculative as the idea that Satan rebelled because he refused to humble himself to man or that Satan rebelled because he refused to bow to G-d's son prior to the creation of man. In any case, human existence prior to the fall of Satan is not considered in Dante's scheme, and we know from the inscription that when humanity sets itself apart from G-d, it enters Lucifer's state of being through the gates of woe from which there is no hope of escape.
Taking another look at Dante's map and at that pitched tossing, we find that Purgatory was created with the displaced earth from Satan's crash landing -- he was driven into one side of the planet (right under Jerusalem, the place that would later become the home for G-d's chosen after Abraham was told to move from Ur all the way to that very spot). Purgatory, then, was created by the fall as a surmountable path (Nimrod wouldn't have had to bother building his own had he just known of this one) into G-d's kingdom (the fabled ladder out of hell). Satan's facing the wrong way, though, and plugging the hole, and Purgatory was never meant to be a means by which to cleanse mortal sin. The dead who go there, as we shall see, reach it through a different route.
Hell then is bound by the gate on one side of it and Satan on the other side of it -- between those fixed points, we find the city of Woe, the forsaken people, and eternal sorrow. No one who enters the gate gets out even though we learn in circle 8 that Dante allows demons to walk the earth outside of those boundaries.
The paradox we’re now able to discuss, then, is simple -- those who enter the gate have to abandon hope of salvation from the consequences of entering, on the one hand, while the elect who entered limbo have been saved from eternal damnation, on the other. This is where we get to apply Aristotelian logic, and it would have nothing to do with the time sequence (since we know the gate was created before humanity), the time of Dante's visit (since anything predating Dante's visit would also have been subject to the first rule), or when the sign was posted at the entrance (since it would have been posted at the time it was made -- before humanity was created). Under Dante's system, both variables can be true, and the reasoning is that we apply the rule to the Gate and not to the place the gate guards.
Your syllogism is as follows:
Those who enter the gate cannot be saved; to get to limbo, one has to go through the gate; therefore, no one in limbo can be saved.
Your conclusion, then, that those in limbo should be subject to the rule of the gate is based on the minor premise that they entered the gate on their way in. If you noticed, Dante doesn't see any souls entering that gate -- he doesn't meet anyone yearning for hell, in fact, until he gets to Acheron and sees them lining up along the river waiting for passage on Charon's boat.
Based on that fact, we can create our own syllogism here:
Those who enter the gate cannot be saved; those whom Christ took from limbo were saved; therefore, those whom Christ took must not have entered through the gate.
The only people we know to whom that rule must apply would be Virgil, who is already damned, and Dante, who has been willed to enter by G-d so that he can complete the entire journey from hell's mouth to the Empyrean, from abject despair to everlasting hope (like Ezekiel, or Quentin Tarantino's Pulp Fiction. Dante, in fact, is the only person in hell who walks through it with hope (Virgil knows he has to return, after all), and we can speculate that he was able to do so only because Christ broke the gate during what Fr. Brennan calls the "plundering" (rather than harrowing) of hell.
That being said, we can set the Aristotle aside for the reality that G-d's New Covenant is the fulfillment of the Old -- the people who are chosen have always been meant for the beatific vision. Now that that opportunity is open to everyone through Christ, humanity has opportunities to bring its will into accord with G-d's. The Chosen People who already existed in a state of grace (a state in which their wills were in accord with G-d's) were naturally called to the beatific vision when heaven was opened.
I wonder what Dante would have read had he turned around to look at the back side of the gate after he'd entered. Maybe,
"I'm the way to the city of light.
I'm the way to a saved people.
I'm the way into eternal bliss.
Sacred justice moved my architect
I was raised here by divine omnipotence,
primordial love and ultimate intellect.
Only those elements tiem cannot wear
were made before me, and beyond time I stand.
Embrace salvation ye who enter here."
Think about it -- the gate was open. On one side there's no hope. On the other, aside from those wild beasts -- there's the Mount of Joy. If we choose through free will our states of being, then we seek our own place in the divine order of things (as much as those who neglect their grace yearn for placement in hell and as much as those who grasp it year for placement in heaven). Who's to say, though, that those who are already saved cannot be retrieved. After all, that's the promise of Christ.
S.
I thought we were talking about the Good Friday of 1300 not the first Good Friday. If this is the case than the sign would make sense wouldn’t it.
Yes, Adam, Good Friday of the year 1300. Develop your thoughts on this a bit -- in what way would the sign make more sense on the 1301th Good Friday than it would on the 1st?
S.
Canto IV
Dante has moved a considerable distance yet he has gone virtually nowhere. Step by step he descends but is painfully aware there is a greater distance yet to go. It is no wonder that his fear overwhelms him; his task is daunting and dangerous at best.
I guess I get it that the virtuous pagans having achieved something in the world through reason and the arts are residing where they are in proximity to the gate of hell. And that they achieved all this but did seek the holy light, the highest power in the process and pursuit of knowledge, and that they didn’t establish a relationship with the Divine, there is no reason they have a place in hell. There seems to be hierarchy of hell. Some people in our world today would probably be satisfied to reside with these individuals, the world’s smartest, most creative citizens. It is interesting that their work has been so effective in aiding others to discover God and yet falls short of what God’s expects of them. If only they had gone all the way, over the edge and accepted God, lived in relationship to him, on paper like their great works, perhaps Dante would have positioned them later on in his great work.
When the poet says, “now let us go into the blind world,” and later the reader discovers that the poet’s place is with the virtuous pagans, those of equal or greater worldly influence, it is easy to see that the blind is really leading the blind. Isn’t that what got them in hell in the first place. If only they had seen the light, the true light, the Divine glow, they would have made it to a different place. Considering himself among the greats, perhaps this is Dante’s way of showing that not only has he be charged with saving himself, he has been sent to redeem their works too in order that their legacy counts for something more and continues to be of use in the way-finding process where one finds the true light. Maybe it is just a way that Dante separates himself from the crowd which serves a good purpose as well. This has particular importance when considering the Priesthood today. Romans 4:4 says, “Be of this world not in this world,” which requires us to separate ourselves from the way of the world and devote our lives to the way of God.
I share the same opinion with Fr. Earl Meyer because Dante seems to atticulate his first circle of hell (limbo) as a place of final damnation and lack of any possible salvation. If limbo is such, it would be heretical to state that the un-baptized, and those who were not Christians will be condemed to limbo. The Fathers of the Vatican Council II taught us that any one who lived according to his or her state in life and followed his or her concience will attaind the mercy of God. The non-baptized and non Christians who lived morally, such as in the pre-Christian era will attain the mercy of God. It is obvious that Dante’s work was writing before the Vatican II doctrinal teachings was promulgated in the early 1970’s. I should believe that if Dante was to be writing this literary work today, he would think differently about this canto.
Marioneteer, your insight into the virtuous pagans is useful since, canonically, all who seek G-d, or the good, are, according to Fr. Ramacciotti, eligible for redemption. Your quote, though, from Romans is misplaced -- you write that "Romans 4:4 says, 'Be of this world not in this world,'" -- but the passage is actually, "A worker's wage is credited not as a gift, but as something due." Nonetheless, the sentiment is there (I think you've flipped it, though) that we ought to be "in" the world, and not "of" it. Our lives should not be consumed with the material advantages of this world; instead, we should use them properly in relation to the needs of our spiritual goals. Here, though, the pagans are not sinners -- they were just born without the light of Christ and did not know to search for it. Therefore, they died with their state of being as one in which reason, not grace, was their highest ideal. For that reason, they will never see G-d. This will become problematic for us when Virgil, who is technically among these damned, enters Purgatory and passes through Peter's gate, for he will have effectively entered heaven in his graceless state.
S.
Shalom Leka, you may very well have a point, but the reality of Limbo is still with us even after Vatican II, as you may note from the New Advent website on that reality. Furthermore, review Fr. Brennan's comments about it -- he says that limbo is real both for those who die outside the light of Christ and children who die unbaptized. How did Vatican II affect the way this concept is taught?
S.
Error: Romans 4:4 is indeed wrong. Romans 12:2 is the verse I wanted to use. It better says I what I thought I was saying. In any event, use Romans 12:2.
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conflict of interest resulting from such holdings due to our intent to profit from the liquidation
of these shares. Shares may be sold at any time, even after positive statements have been made
regarding the above company. Since we own shares, there is an inherent conflict of interest in
our statements and opinions. Readers of this publication are cautioned not to place undue reliance
on forward-looking statements, which are based on certain assumptions and expectations involving
various risks and uncertainties that could cause results to differ materially from those set forth
in the forward- looking statements. This is not solicitation to buy or sell stocks, this text is
for informational purpose only and you should seek professional advice from registered financial
advisor before you do anything related with buying or selling stocks, penny stocks are very high
risk and you can lose your entire investment.
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